Department of Education 

FOR THE 

United States Commission to the Paris Exposition of 1900 



MONOGRAPHS ON EDUCATION 

IN THE 

UNITED STATES 

EDITED BY 

NICHOLAS MURRAY BUTLER 
Professor of Philosophy and Education in Columbia University, New York 



18 

EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO 



BY 



BOOKER T. WASHINGTON 

Principal of the Tuskegee Institute, Tuskegee, Alabama 



This Monograph is contributed to the United States Educational Exhibit by thi 

State of New York 



Department of Education 

FOR THE 

United States Commission to the Paris Exposition of 1900 

Director 
HOWARD J. ROGERS, Albany, N. Y. 



MONOGRAPHS 

ON 

EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES 

EDITED BY 

NICHOLAS MURRAY BUTLER 

Professor of Philosophy and Education in Columbia University \ New York 



i EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION — 
Andrew Sloan Draper, President of the University of Illinois, Cham- 
paign, Illinois 

2 KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION — Susan E. Blow, Cazenovia, New 

York 

3 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION — William T. Harris, United States 

Commissioner of Education, Washington, D. C. 

4 SECONDARY EDUCATION — Elmer Ellsworth Brown, Professor 

of Education in the University of California, Berkeley, California 

5 THE AMERICAN COLLEGE — Andrew Fleming West, Professor of 

Latin in Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey 

6 THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY— Edward Delavan Perry, Jay 

Professor of Greek in' Columbia University, New York 

7 EDUCATION OF WOMEN — M. Carey Thomas, President of Bryn 

. Mawr College, Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania 

8 TRAINING OF TEACHERS — B. A. Hinsdale, ProfessoroftJie Science 

and Art of Teaching in the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, 
Michigan 

9 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE — Gilbert B. Morrison, 

Principal of the Manual Training High School, Kansas City, Missouri 

10 PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION— James Russell Parsons, Director of 

the College and High School Departments, University of the State of 
New York, Albany, New York 

11 SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL AND ENGINEERING EDUCATION — 

T. C. Mendenhall, President of the Technological Institute, Worces- 
ter, Massachusetts 
13 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION — Charles W. Dabney, President 
of the University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee 

13 COMMERCIAL EDUCATION — Edmund J. James, Professor of Public 

Administration in the University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 

14 ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION — Isaac Edwards Clarke, 

Bureau of Education, Washington, D. C. 

15 EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES — Edward Ellis Allen, Principal of 

the Pennsylvania Institution for the Instruction of the Blind, Over- 
brook, Pennsylvania 

16 SUMMER SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION — Herbert B. 

Adams, Professor of American and Institutio?ial History in the Johns 
Hopkins University, Balti?nore, Maryland 

17 SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES AND ASSOCIATIONS —James McKeen 

Cattell, Professor of Psychology in Columbia University, New York 

18 EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO — Booker T. Washington, Principal 

of the Tuskegee Institute, Tuskegee, Alabama 

19 EDUCATION OF THE INDIAN— William N. Hailmann, Superin- 

tendent of Schools, Dayton, Ohio 



Department of Education 

FOR THE 

United States Commission to the Paris Exposition of 1900 



MONOGRAPHS ON EDUCATION 



UNITED STATES 

EDITED by 

NICHOLAS MURRAY BUTLER 

Professor of Philosophy and Educatio?i i?i Columbia University, Neu York 



18 

EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO 



BY 



BOOKER T. WASHINGTON 

Principal of the Tuskegee Institute, Tuskcgee, Alabama 



This Monograph is contributed to the United States Educational Exhibit by the 

State of New York 



klC ISO 



Copyright by 

[. B. LYON COMPANY 

1899 



EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO 



I INTRODUCTION 

I could make no more fitting introduction to this mono- 
graph — dealing with a race which has grown from twenty 
native Africans imported into the country as chattel slaves 
in 1 619, to fully 10,000,000 of free men, entitled under the 
federal constitution to all the rights, privileges and immu- 
nities of citizens of the United States, in 1899 — than to 
reproduce here in part the eloquent remarks of President 
William McKinley, made at Chicago, October 9, 1899, show- 
ing in the fewest possible words the national growth in popu- 
lation, in territory and in material wealth, a growth which 
has no parallel in the various history of the human race, 
only comprehending, as it does, a little more than a century 
of national life. President McKinley said : 

II On the reverse side of the great seal of the United 
States, authorized by congress, June 20, 1782, and adopted 
as the seal of the United States of America after its forma- 
tion under the Federal constitution, is the pyramid, signify- 
ing strength and duration. 

11 The eye over it and the motto allude to the many signal 
interpositions of Providence in favor of the American cause. 
The date underneath, 1776, is that of the declaration of 
independence, and the words under it signify the beginning 
of a new American era which commences from that date. 
It is impossible to trace our history since, without feeling 
that the Providence which was with us in the beginning, has 
continued to the nation His gracious interposition. When, 
unhappily, we have been engaged in war He has given us 
the victory. 

" Fortunate, indeed, that it can be said we have had no 
clash of arms which has ended in defeat, and no responsi- 
bility resulting from war is tainted with dishonor. In peace 
we have been signally blessed, and our progress has gone 



4 EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO [896 

on unchecked and even increasing m the intervening years. 
In boundless wealth of soil and mine and forest nature has 
favored us, while all races of men of every nationality and 
climate have contributed their good blood to make the 
nation what it is. From 3,929,214 in 1790 our population 
has grown to upward of 62,000,000 in 1890, and our esti- 
mated population to-day made by the governors of the states 
is 77,803,241. 

" We have gone from thirteen states to forty-five. We 
have annexed every variety of territory, from the coral reefs 
and cocoanut groves of Key West to the icy regions of 
Northern Alaska — territory skirting the Atlantic, the Gulf 
of Mexico, the Pacific and the Arctic and the islands of the 
Pacific and Carribean sea — and we have extended still fur- 
ther our jurisdiction to the faraway islands in the Pacific. 
Our territory is more than four times larger than it was 
w T hen the treaty of peace was signed in 1 783. Our indus- 
trial growth has been even more phenomenal than that of 
population or territory. Our wealth, estimated in 1790 
at $462,000,000, has advanced to $65,000,000,000. 

''Education has not been overlooked. The mental and 
moral equipment of the youth upon whom will in the future 
rest the responsibilities of government have had the unceas- 
ing care of the state and the nation. We expended in 
1897-98 in public education, open to all, $202,115,548; for 
secondary education, $23,474,683 ; and for higher education 
for the same period, $30,307,902. The number of pupils 
enrolled in public schools in 1896-97 was 14,652,492, or 
more than 20 per cent of our population. Is this not a pil- 
lar of strength to the republic ? 

11 Our national credit, often tried, has been ever upheld. 
It has no superior and no stain. The United States has 
never repudiated a national obligation either to its creditors 
or to humanity. It will not now begin to do either. It 
never struck a blow except for civilization, and has never 
struck its colors. Has the pyramid lost any of its strength ? 
Has the republic lost any of its virility ? Has the self- • 



897] EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO 5 

governing principle been weakened? Is there any present 
menace to our stability and duration ? 

11 These questions bring but one answer. The republic is 
sturdier and stronger than ever before. Government by the 
people has been advanced. Freedom under the flag is more 
universal than when the Union was formed. Our steps have 
been forward, not backward. From Plymouth Rock to the 
Philippines the grand triumphant march of human liberty 
has never paused. Fraternity and union are deeply imbed- 
ded in the hearts of the American people. For half a cen- 
tury before the civil war disunion was the fear of men of all 
sections. That word has crone out of the American vocabu- 
lary. It is spoken now only as an historical memory. Xorth, 
south, east and west were never so welded together, and 
while they may differ about internal policies they are all 
for the Union and the maintenance of the integrity of the 
flag." 

II DEVELOPMENT OF POPULAR EDUCATION 

As the early efforts to educate the Negroes of the sixteen 

southern states, after the war of the rebellion, in 1S65, — 
thev were declared no longer to be slaves, but human beings 
with souls to be saved and intellects to be cultivated, to the 
end that they might be the better prepared to discharge the 
serious obligations of manhood and citizenship, — are inti- 
mately connected with the development of the common 
school system of New England, it will be necessary here to 
describe in as brief a manner as possible the growth of pop- 
ular education in those states. If this principle of popular 
education had not been so firmly rooted in the heart and 
conscience of the people of the Xew England states by the 
Pilgrim fathers, the history of education of the Negroes 
would have been distinctly different and, perhaps, not possi- 
ble at all. The spirit which actuated these sturdy pioneers 
from the old world, who have blazed the way for American 
civil and religious liberty and the development of a system 
of popular education which has come to permeate the entire 
republic — forty-five mighty states, each sovereign in all 



6 EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO [898 

matters of its internal policy — was prophesied by Bishop 
Berkeley, in the lines that follow, which have endeared 
their author's memory to all lovers of education and liberty 
in America : 

The Muse, disgusted at an age and clime 

Barren of every glorious theme, 
In distant lands now waits a better time 

Producing subjects worthy fame. 

In happy climes, where from the genial sun 

And virgin earth such scenes ensue, 
The force of art by Nature seems outdone, 

And fancied beauties by the true; 

In happy climes, the seat of innocence, 

Where Nature guides and virtue rules, 
When men shall not impose for truth and sense 

The pedantry of courts and schools — 

There shall be sung another golden age, 

The rise of empire and of arts, 
The good and great inspiring epic rage, 

The wisest heads and noblest hearts. 



Westward the course of Empire takes its way; 

The first four acts already past, 
A fifth shall close the drama with the day. 

Time's noblest offspring is the last. 

Our country is now divided into four distinct groups of 
states — the New England, the middle, the southern and 
western states — but it can of truth be said that all of them 
have drawn their theories of education, of theology and 
statesmanship, from the ten states in the middle and New 
England group, especially from the latter. The sixteen 
states in the southern group have not profited so much from 
this source as the nineteen states in the central and western 
group, but they have been influenced in a very marked way 
since the war of the rebellion, and are being more and more 
influenced now, by the work of New England men and 
women engaged in the active work of education among the 
Negroes of the southern states. 

The development of the common-school principle kept 
pace with that of the population in New England from the 



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air- :: i: -.vis ordered :ra: r : 

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Tht continuor lopment of the public school 

em in I rgland in this direction up to 1 _ rien 

the general school fund of Massachu is establishedL 

A. D. 3 M. A.. LL. D., among the most reliable 

and popular authorities on educational s red 

States, from whom I have quoted in the preceding para- 



8 EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO [9OO 

" It is plain from this brief record that the American com- 
mon school was as practically organized in all essential 
respects in 1837 as to-day, when the state assumed addi- 
tional responsibility by establishing the first board of edu- 
cation, of which Horace Mann became the first secretary. 
This fact disposes of the statement, somewhat industriously 
propogated, that Horace Mann virtually created the present 
common school system of the country by his administration 
of twelve years as secretary of the Massachusetts board of 
education, from 1837 to 1849. There was, doubtless, ample 
need that Mann and his illustrious group of co-workers 
should accomplish the reformation of the public schools of 
that day. But the foundation had been laid, and there was 
no call for the destruction of anything ; only for the return 
to the original habit of town supervision, additional legal 
authorization of all that then existed, and especially the 
waking of the people to the call of the new time for the 
more vital and generous support of their own system of 
public education, reorganized according to the improved 
methods of a progressive age. In nothing was the educa- 
tional statesmanship of Horace Mann more evident than in 
his immediate grasp of the solution, his estimate of the 
points of attack, and his commanding influence over the fore- 
most public men and wise manipulation of the legislature 
of the commonwealth during his entire administration." 

The honors which belong to Horace Mann, as head of 
the educational system of Massachusetts, in awakening 
among the people renewed interest in their common 
schools, and in securing such legislation as was necessary to 
place the system upon an effective and assured foundation, 
were shared by some of the best and ablest men in the com- 
monwealth. Their combined enthusiasm and labors aroused 
popular interest in the cause of public education throughout 
the New England and the middle states, which gradually 
spread to the splendid states of the western group. 

What Horace Mann accomplished in the public school 
system of Massachusetts Henry Barnard accomplished in 



90l] EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO 9 

perfecting the systems of Connecticut and Rhode Island, 
both of which he was instrumental in reorganizing and per- 
fecting. The great republic has produced no two men 
whose life work has wrought more for national education, 
and. therefore, for national strength, than that of Horace 
Mann and Henry Barnard. 

But, strangely enough, little provision was made in this 
great and far-reaching revival in these free states, from 1830 
to i860, for public school education for the children of those 
who were termed in those days " free people of color,'" 
although the anti-slavery contest, which was to end in the 
war of the rebellion, and its sequence of inestimable bene- 
fits to all the people, the bondsman and the free man, was 
in its height during this educational revival which was to 
give new life and energy to the republic. The Negro's social 
and political status in the free states was of the most unsat- 
isfactory sort. In the matter of educational and religious 
instruction he had, in a large measure, to shift for himself. 
and in many localities, when he did this, the hoodlum element 
of the white population molested and terrorized him at its 
pleasure, in some instances wrecking and destroying the 
modest schools he or his friends had provided for his bene- 
fit. But what he did for himself and what his friends did 
for him in the matter of education during the trying years 
preceding the war of the rebellion, will be more extensively 
related under the next heading of this monograph. What 
relation the labors of Horace Mann and Henry Barnard sus- 
tained to the inauguration of public education in the sixteen 
southern states after the war will be seen when we come to 
treat of that phase of the subject. 

Ill EDUCATION OF NEGROES BEFORE i56o 

It was the general policy of the sixteen slave-holding 
states of the south to prohibit by fine, imprisonment and 
whipping the giving of instruction to blacks, mulattoes or 
other descendants of African parentage, and this prohibition 
was extended in most of the slave states to " free persons of 
color " as well as to slaves. 



IO EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO [902 

But it has been the general policy of the slave system in 
all ages to keep the slaves in ignorance as the safest way to 
perpetuate itself. In this respect the American slave sys- 
tem followed the beaten path of history, and thus furnished 
the strongest argument for its own undoing. The ignorance 
of the slave is always the best safeguard of the system of 
slavery, but no such theory could long prevail in a democ- 
racy like ours. There were able and distinguished men 
among the slaveholders themselves who rebelled against the 
system and the theories by which it sought to perpetuate 
itself. Such southern men as Thomas Jefferson, Henry 
Clay, Cassius M. Clay, and hundreds of others, never became 
reconciled to the system of slavery and the degradation of 
the slave. 

The general character of the laws enacted on this subject 
by the slave states can be inferred from the following law, 
passed by the state of Georgia in 1829 : 

" If any slave, Negro, or free person of color, or any white 
person shall teach any slave, Negro or free person of color 
to read or write either written or printed characters, the said 
free person of color or slave shall be punished by fine and 
whipping, at the discretion of the court ; and if a white per- 
son so offend, he, she or they shall be punished with a fine 
not exceeding $500 and imprisonment in the common jail, 
at the discretion of the court." 

There were no laws in the slave code more rigidly 
enforced than those prohibiting the giving or receiving 
instruction by the slaves or " free persons of color." And 
yet in nearly all the large cities of the southern states — 
notably in Charleston, Savannah and New Orleans — there 
were what were styled "clandestine schools," where such 
instruction was given. Those who maintained them and 
those who patronized them were constantly watched and 
often apprehended and " beaten with many stripes," but the 
good work went on in some sort until i860, when the war 
that was to be " the beginning of the end " of the whole sys- 
tem of slavery, put a stop to all such effort for the time being. 



903] EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO I I 

There is no more heroic chapter in history than that 
which deals with the persistence with which the slaves and 
" free persons of color " in the slave states sought and 
secured a measure of intellectual and religious instruction ; 
for they were prohibited from preaching or receiving relig- 
ious instruction except by written permit and when at least 
five " white men of good reputation " were present at such 
gatherings. But there has never been a time in the history 
of mankind when repressive laws, however rigidly enforced, 
could shut out the light of knowledge or prevent communion 
with the Supreme Ruler of the universe by such as were 
determined to share these noblest of human enjoyments. 
True, only a few, a very few, of the blacks and " free people 
of color " were able to secure any appreciable mental 
instruction ; but the fact that so many of them sought it 
diligently in defiance of fines and penalties is worthy of 
notice and goes far towards explaining the extraordinary 
manner in which those people crowded into every school 
that was opened to them after the war of the rebellion had 
swept away the slave system and placed all the children of the 
republic upon equality under the Federal constitution. Nor 
was this yearning for mental instruction spasmodic ; thirty- 
four years after the war all the school houses, of whatever sort, 
opened for these people are as crowded with anxious pupils as 
were the modest log school houses planted by New England 
men and women while the soldiers of the disbanded armies of 
the north and south were turning their faces homeward. A 
race so imbued with a love of knowledge, displayed in 
slavery and become the marvel of mankind in freedom, must 
have reserved for it some honorable place in our national 
life which God has not made plain to our understanding. 
In His own good time He will make plain His plans and 
purposes with regard to this people who were allowed to 
serve an apprenticeship of 250 years of slavery in a demo- 
cratic republic. 

In the free states of the north very little more provision 
was made, as late as 1830, by the state for the education of 



12 EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO 

the Negro population than by the slave states. There was 
no prohibition by the state against such instruction, but 
there was a very pronounced popular sentiment against it, 
when prosecuted by benevolent corporations and individuals. 
In 1833 the Connecticut legislature enacted the following 
black law, for the purpose of suppressing a "school for 
colored misses " which Miss Prudence Crandall had been 
forced to open in self-defense, at Canterbury : 

"Whereas, attempts have been made to establish literary 
institutions in this state for the instruction of colored per- 
sons belonging to other states and countries, which would 
tend to the great increase of the colored population of the 
state, and therefore to the injury of the people ; therefore, 

" Be it enacted, etc., that no person shall set up or estab- 
lish in this state any school, academy, or other literary insti- 
tution for the instruction or education of colored persons, 
who are not inhabitants of this state, or harbor or board, 
for the purpose of attending or being taught or instructed 
in any such school, academy or literary institution, any col- 
ored person who is not an inhabitant of any town in this 
state, without the consent in writing, first obtained, of a 
majority of the civil authority, and also the selectmen of the 
town, in which such school, academy or institution is situ- 
ated, etc. 

" And each and every person who shall knowingly do any 
act forbidden as aforesaid, or shall be aiding or assisting 
therein, shall for the first offense forfeit and pay to the 
treasurer of this state a fine of $100, and for the second 
offense $200, and so double for every offense of which he or 
she shall be convicted ; and all informing officers are required 
to make due presentment of all breaches of this act." 

The cause of this law was the acceptance by Miss Cran- 
dall of a young colored girl into her select school for young 
ladies. The parents of the white students insisted upon the 
dismissal of Miss Harris, the bone of contention, but Miss 
Crandall refused to do so, when the white students were 
withdrawn. Miss Crandall then announced that she would 



CCf EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO I 3 

open her school for " young ladies and little misses of color." 
The people of Canterbury protested against this course, and 
persecuted legally and otherwise Miss Crandall and her 20 
pupils. When they found that they could not intimidate 
the brave woman the legislature was appealed to, and the law 
I have quoted was enacted. Under it Miss Crandall was 
arrested and placed in the common jail. The following day 
she was bailed out by Rev. Samuel J. May and others. The 
case was tried three times in the inferior courts, and was 
argued on appeal before the court of errors, July 22, 1834. 
The court reserved its decision and has not yet rendered it. 
Several attempts were made to burn Miss Crandall's house, 
and finally, September 9, 1834, about 12 o'clock at night, 
" her house was assaulted by a number of persons with 
heavy clubs and iron bars, and windows were dashed to 
pieces. 1 The school work was abandoned after this upon 
the advice of Rev. Mr. May and other friends. The obnox- 
ious law was repealed in 1838. 

All this sounds rather odd when it is remembered that the 
citizens of no state in the republic have contributed as many 
of their sons and daughters to the educational work among 
the Negroes of the south since the war, with the possible 
exception of Massachusetts, as Connecticut, and that two of 
her citizens, John F. Slater and Daniel Hand, contributed 
each the princely sum of one million dollars for the educa- 
tion of the Negroes of the southern states. Surely this all 
indicates one of the most remarkable revolutions in the pub- 
lic opinion of a state of which we have any record. 

Schools established for the education of Negro youth were 
assaulted and wrecked in other free states, but the good work 
steadily progressed. Private schools sprang up in all the mid- 
dle and New England states, Pennsylvania, New York and 
Massachusetts leading in the work, their white citizens con- 
tributing largely to their support. There were many of 
these schools, some of them of splendid character, in Bos- 
ton, Providence, New York, Philadelphia, Washington and 

1 Williams' History of the Negro race, vol. IV, p. 156. 



14 • EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO [906 

Cincinnati. They were gradually absorbed into the public 
school system, and none of them now exist in an independ- 
ent character, except the Institute for colored youth at Phila- 
delphia, Lincoln university, in Chester county, and Avery 
institute at Allegheny City, all in Pennsylvania. 

In 1837 Richard Humphreys left $10,000 by will, with 
which the Institute for colored youth was started, thirty 
members of the Society of Friends forming themselves into 
an association for the purpose of carrying out the wishes 
and plans of Mr. Humphreys. A remarkable feature of the 
constitution adopted by the trustees, in view of the present 
consideration of the subject by those concerned in Negro 
education, is the following preamble : 

" We believe that the most successful method of elevating 
the moral and intellectual character of the descendants of 
Africa, as well as of improving their social condition, is to 
extend to them the benefits of a good education, and to 
instruct them in the knowledge of some useful trade or busi- 
ness, whereby they may be enabled to obtain a comfortable 
livelihood by their own industry ; and through these means 
to prepare them for fulfilling the various duties of domestic 
and social life with reputation and fidelity, as good citizens 
and freemen." 

The measure of progress which has been made in public 
opinion and in the educational status of the Negro race in 
the middle and New England states can easily be estimated 
by the fact that as recently as 1830 no Negro could matricu- 
late in any of the colleges and other schools of this splendid 
group of states, and that now not one of them is closed 
against a black person, except Girard college at Philadel- 
phia, whose founder made a perpetual discrimination against 
people of African descent in devising his benefaction ; that 
Negro children stand on the same footing with white chil- 
dren in all public school benefits ; that the separate school 
system has broken down entirely in the New England states 
and is gradually breaking down in the middle states, New 
Jersey and Pennsylvania being the only states in the latter 



907] EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO I 5 

group which still cling to the principle ; and that in many 
of the public schools of both groups of states Negro teach- 
ers are employed and stand upon the same footing as 
white teachers. Indeed, Miss Maria L. Baldwin, an accom- 
plished black woman, is principal of the Agassiz school, at 
Cambridge, Mass., and in the large corps of teachers 
under her, not one of them, I believe, is a member of her 
own race. 

All this is a very long stride from the condition of the 
public mind in the middle and New England states when 
Negro children were not allowed to attend any public school 
or college and when a reputable white woman was perse- 
cuted, jailed and her property destroyed, in 1834, for accept- 
ing a young colored woman into her select school. This 
remarkable change in public sentiment argues well for the 
future of the Negro race and for the republic, which for 
more than a century has agonized over this race problem, 
and is still anxious about it in the sixteen southern states, 
where a large majority of the Negroes reside and will, in all 
probability, continue to reside for all time to come. 

IV PUBLIC SCHOOL EDUCATION IN THE SOUTH AFTER THE WAR 

Dr. A. D. Mayo, M. A., LL.D., one of the best authori- 
ties on educational matters in the United States, says that 
" it is still a favorite theory of a class of the representatives 
of the higher university and college education to proclaim 
the invariable legitimate descent of the secondary and even 
elementary schooling of the people always and everywhere 
from this fountain head," the southern states, and that, " in 
one sense, this assertion is ' founded on fact.' " But, although 
most of the southern states were committed to the theory 
of public education, the system of slavery stood in the way 
of the development of the theory. Popular education and 
slavery, like oil and water, will not mix. The educational 
energy of the south expanded rather along academic and 
collegiate than common school lines. The slave-holding 
aristocrary drew the social line against the poor whites as 



I 6 EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO [908 

well as the slave blacKs, and while dooming the latter to 
mental darkness by stringent laws, rigidly enforced, the same 
result was accomplished in the case of the former by the 
steady development of the old English theory of academy 
education, chartered for the most part by the state but sup- 
ported almost wholly by their patrons, and therefore inacces- 
sible to the children of the poor whites. It was due to this 
fact that so very large a percentage of the southern white 
population figured in the first census after the war of the 
rebellion as illiterate and so figure to a large extent even 
to-day, twenty-nine years after the beneficent operation of 
the public school system in all of the states of the south. 

If the south, because of the existence of the slave system 
more than anything else, drifted away from the theory of 
public school education, prior to i860, it has nobly rectified 
its mistake since 1870. Upon this point Dr. Mayo says, 
speaking of Virginia, which has always set the pace for her 
sister states of the south — and especially in the matter of 
education, under the leadership of Dr. W. H. Ruffner (from 
1870 to 1882), who has been appropriately styled the Horace 
Mann of the south : 

" But the condition of the educational destitution in which 
the state found itself in 1865, in the hour of its dire extrem- 
ity, was the logical result of the narrow English policy it 
has pursued in this as in other directions ; and, in 1870, the 
cry went up, from the sea sands to the most distant recesses 
of the western mountains, for the establishment of the 
American people's common school. 

" In nothing has the really superior class of Virginia more 
notably declared its soundness, persistence, and capacity to 
hold fast to a great idea than in the way in which it stood 
by the educational ideas of Jefferson through the one hun- 
dred turbulent years from the outbreak of the war of the 
revolution to the inauguration of the people's common 
school in 1870." 

As it was with Virginia, so it was with the other southern 
states. A revival was begun in public or common school 



9O9] EDUCATION OF THE XEGRO I J 

education, in 1870, which is still in progress, such as swept 
over Xew England and the middle states from 1830 to i860. 
Broken in fortune and bowed with defeat in a great civil 
war, the south pulled itself together as a giant rouses from 
slumber and shakes himself and began to lay the basis of a 
new career and a new prosperity in a condition of freedom 
of all the people and in the widest diffusion of education 
among the citizens through the medium of the common 
schools. Perhaps no people in history ever showed a more 
superb public spirit and self-sacrifice under trying circum- 
stances than the people of the south have displayed in the 
gradual building up of their public school system upon the 
ruins of the aristocratic academy system. The work had to 
be done from the ground up, from the organization of the 
working force to the building of the school houses and the 
marshalling of the young hosts. The work has required 
in the aggregate, perhaps, the raising by taxation of 
$514,922,268, $100,000,000 having been expended in main- 
taining the separate schools for the Xegro race. This must 
be regarded as a marvelous showing when the impoverished 
condition in which the war left the south in 1865 is consid- 
ered. But it is a safe, if a time-honored saying, that "where 
there is a will there is a way." The southern people found 
a way because they had a will to do it ; and it is not too 
much to claim that the industrial prosperity which the south 
is now enjoying is intimately connected with the effort and 
money expended in popular education since 1870. 

The statistical tables will show more eloquently than could 
be done by words the growth of the public school system in 
the southern states since 1870. These tables are furnished 
at the conclusion of the monograph, together with other 
tables showing the growth in other directions in secondary, 
academic, collegiate and industrial education. 

It is interesting to note that the total enrollment of the 
sixteen southern states and the District of Columbia for the 
year 1896-97 was 5,398,076, the number of Xegro children 
being 1,460,084; the number of white children 3,937,992. 



iS EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO [9IO 

The estimated number of children in the south from 5 to 18 
years of age was 8,625,770, of which 2,816,340 or 32.65 per 
cent were children of the Negro race, and 5,809,430 or 67.35 
per cent were white children. The number of Negro children 
enrolled was 51.84 per cent of the Negro population and 
67.79 °f tne white population. When the relative social and 
material condition of the former is contrasted with that of 
the latter, it must be admitted that the children of the 
former slaves are treading closely upon the heels of the 
children of the former master class in the pursuit of knowl- 
edge as furnished in the public school system. 

During the year 1896-97 it is estimated that $31,144,801 
was expended in public school education in the sixteen 
southern states and the District of Columbia, of which, it is 
estimated, $6,575,000 was expended upon the Negro schools. 

Since 1870 it is estimated that $514,922,268 have been 
expended in the maintenance of the public school system of 
the southern states, and that at least $100,000,000 have been 
expended for the maintenance of the separate public schools 
for Negroes. The total expenditure for each year and the 
aggregate for the twenty-seven years, as well as the common 
school enrollment of white and colored children for each 
year since 1876 are shown in table 2 at the end of the 
monograph. 

The significance Oi the iacts contained in the two fore- 
going paragraphs will be appreciated by Europeans as well 
as Americans. The fact that 2,816,340 children of former 
slaves were in regular attendance in the public schools of the 
late slave-holding states of the south for the year 1896-97, 
and that $6,575,000 was expended for their maintenance, 
gathered entirely from public taxation and funds for educa- 
tional purposes controlled by the states, should be regarded 
as the strongest arguments that could be presented to 
Americans or to foreigners to prove that the race problem 
in the United States is in satisfactory process of solution. 
That there is grave doubt at home and abroad upon this 
subject I freely acknowledge ; but judging entirely from 



91 I J EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO I 9 

such facts as are here recited, and from observation in the 
black belt covering a period of eighteen years, I am free to 
say I have no doubts whatever as to the ultimate outcome. 
The people of the southern states, the old slave-holding class, 
have not only accepted in good faith the educational burden 
placed upon them, in the addition of 8,000,000 of people to 
their citizenship, but they have discharged that burden in a 
way that must command the admiration of the world. 
That my own people are discharging their part of the obli- 
gation is shown in the statistics of school attendance I have 
given, and in the further fact that it is estimated they have 
amassed since their emancipation $300,000,000 of taxable 
property. While this may seem small as a taxable value as 
compared to the aggregate of taxable values in the southern 
states, it is large, indeed, when the poverty of the Negro 
race in 1865, with all the advantages and disadvantages of 
slave education and tradition to contend with, are consid- 
ered. When a race starts empty-handed in the serious busi- 
ness of life, what it inclines to and amasses in a given period 
is valuable almost wholly as a criterion upon which to base 
a reasonable deduction as to its ultimate future. 

In all matters affecting my race and its future in the 
United States, I indulge an optimism which I endeavor to 
keep within the bounds of reasonable hopefulness. I have 
this faith because of the facts in the situation, because I 
have faith in the possibilities of my race and in the humanity 
and self-interest of my white fellow-citizens, not only of the 
south, but of the north and the west as well, and because 
as a historical fact social revolutions seldom if ever go back- 
wards. The Negro race is compelled to go forward in the 
social scale because it is surrounded by forces which will not 
permit it to go backwards without crushing the life out of 
it, as they crushed the life out of the unassimilable aborigi- 
nal Indian races of North America. In this matter of sta- 
tistics I have presented, it is clearly to be seen that the 
Negro race, in its desire for American education, possesses 
the prime element of assimilation into the warp and woof of 



20 EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO [9 1 2 

American life, and if its desire for the Christian religion be 
added we have the three prime elements of homogenous 
citizenship as defined by Prof. Aldrini, viz. : Habitat, lan- 
guage and religion. 

It seems well to me to say this much, adduced from the 
statistics of common school education in the late slave states 
of the sixteen southern states and the District of Columbia, 
where the bulk of the Negro people reside, as a logical con- 
clusion in a problematical situation, concerning which many 
wise men are disposed to indulge a pessimism which con- 
fuses them as well as those who have to deal immediately 
with the perplexing condition of affairs. I submit that the 
common school statistics of the southern states leave no 
room for doubt as to the ultimate well-being of the Negroes 
residing in those states. 

V GROUND WORK EDUCATION IN THE SOUTH 

In the preceding chapter the extraordinary development 
of the public school system of the sixteen southern states 
and the District of Columbia has been hastily recorded 
from 1870 to 1896-97. It is a record worthy of the proud 
people who made it, — people who have from the foundation 
of the republic been resourceful, courageous, self-reliant ; 
rising always equal to any emergency presented in their new 
and trying circumstances, surrounded on every side, as they 
were, by a vast undeveloped territory, and by a hostile 
Indian population, and fatally handicapped by a system of 
African slavery, which proved a mill stone about the neck of 
the people until it was finally abolished, amid the smoke and 
flame and death of a hundred battles, in 1865. There are 
none so niggardly as to deny to the southern people the full 
measure of credit which they deserve for the splendid spirit 
with which they put aside their prejudices of more than two 
centuries against popular common school education on the 
one hand, and their equally prescriptive prejudice against 
the education of the Negro race under any circumstances on 
the other. Few if any people in the various history of man- 



913] EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO 21 

kind have so completely overcome two such prejudices. On 
this point Dr. Mayo says : 

" Almost one hundred years ago young Thomas Jefferson 
drew up a scheme for the education of the people of Vir- 
ginia, which, had it been adopted, would have changed the 
history of that and of every southern state and the nation. 
He proposed to emancipate the slaves and fit them, by indus- 
trial training, for freedom ; to establish a free school for 
every white child in every district of the colony ; to support 
an academy for boys within a day's horseback ride of every 
man in the Old Dominion, and to crown all with a univer- 
sity, unsectarian in religion, elective in its curriculum, teach- 
ing everything necessary for a gentleman to know. This 
plan received the indorsement of many of the most eminent 
men of the day, and exalts the fame of Jefferson as an edu- 
cator even higher than his reputation as a statesman." 

All that Jefferson dreamed and outlined for the people of 
Virginia and of the south has been more than accomplished 
for both races in Virginia and in the south. The possibili- 
ties of a common school, collegiate and industrial education 
have been placed in easy reach of all the people, and the 
people are justifying the splendid faith of the Sage of Mon- 
ticello by the earnestness with which they are taking advan- 
tage of the opportunities provided for them by the states 
and a munificent Christian philanthropy — a philanthropy 
which has given fully $40,000,000 of money and thousands 
of devoted men and women teachers to illuminate the men- 
tal darkness generated by the system of slavery. Surely no 
better monument than this philanthropy could be erected to 
perpetuate the memory of Horace Mann and Henry Bar- 
nard, in relighting the fires of popular education in the mid- 
dle and New England states, for without their labors and 
sacrifices in this cause that philanthropy would not have 
been possible. Truly, 

"God moves in a mysterious way 
His wonders to perform ; 
He plants his footsteps in the sea 
And rides upon the storm." 



2 2 EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO [914 

But the public school system of the southern states had to 
have other and more substantial foundation than was offered 
at the close of the war of the rebellion, in 1865, by the 
academy and college system which had been fostered and 
developed as best adapted to a social condition whose cor- 
ner stone was the slave system. Without this foundation, 
firmly and wisely laid in the fateful years from 1865 to 1870, 
by the initiative of the Federal government, magnificently 
sustained by the philanthropy and missionary consecration 
of the people of the New England and middle states, the 
results which we have secured in the public school sys- 
tem of the south from 1870 to the present time would not 
have been possible. All the facts in the situation sustain 
this view. 

It is creditable to the people of the New England and 
middle states that they, who had been engaged for four 
years in a Titanic warfare with their brethren of the south- 
ern states, should enter the southern states in the person of 
their sons and daughters, and with a voluntary gift of 
$40,000,000, or more, to plant common schools and acad- 
emies and colleges, in the devastation wrought by the civil 
war, upon the sites where the slave auction block had stood 
for 250 years, thereby lifting the glorious torch of knowl- 
edge in the dense mental darkness with which the slave sys- 
tem had sought to hedge its power ; nor is it less creditable 
that the southern people accepted this assistance and builded 
upon it a public school system which promises to equal that 
in any of the other sections of the republic. 

In anticipation of the condition of affairs that would arise 
when hostilities should cease, as early as the spring of 1865, 
before the war was over, an act was passed by congress pro- 
viding for the relief of the destitute of the south. The act 
was entitled " an act to establish a bureau for the relief of 
freedmen and refugees." May 20, 1865, Major-General O. 
O. Howard was appointed commissioner of the Freedmen's 
bureau. General Howard, — who founded the institution 
which bears his name at Washington and gave it a princely 



915] EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO 23 

endowment, 1 — "gave," says the historian Williams, "great 
attention to the subject of education ; and after planting 
schools for the freedmen throughout a greater portion of 
the south, in 1870, five years after the work was begun, he 
made a report. It was full of interest. In five years there 
were 4239 schools established, 9,307 teachers employed, and 
247,333 pupils instructed. In 1868 the average attendance 
was 89,396, but in 1870 it was 91,398, or 79 3-4 per cent of 
the total number enrolled. The emancipated people sus- 
tained 1324 schools themselves, and owned 592 school 
buildings. The Freedmen's bureau furnished 654 buildings 
for school purposes." 

In 1879, according to the same authority, "there were 74 
high and normal schools, with 8,147 students, and 61 inter- 
mediate schools, with 1,750 students in attendance. In 
doing this great work, — for buildings, repairs, teachers, etc., 
— $1,002,896.07 was expended. Of this sum the freedmen 
raised $200,000. This was conclusive proof that emancipa- 
tion was no mistake." 

Mr. Williams says further (p. 393) that it appears from 
the reports of the Freedmen's bureau that the earliest school 
for freedom was opened by the American missionary associ- 
ation, at Fortress Monroe, Va., September, 1861, and before 
the close of the war Hampton and Norfolk were leading 
points where educational operations were conducted ; but 
after the cessation of hostilities teachers were sent from the 
northern states and schools for freedmen were opened in all 
parts of the south. During the five years of its operations 
the bureau made a total expenditure of $6,513,955.55. No 
money was ever more wisely or beneficently expended. 
While a goodly portion of it was expended in food and 
clothing, and the like, for the destitute freedmen, by far the 
most of it went into school houses and into the salaries of 
school teachers, and finally became the basis if not the 
inspiration of the public school system of the southern 
states ; it certainly did become the inspiration and the 

1 History of the Negro race, p. 385. 



24 EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO [916 

foundation of the 178 schools for secondary and higher edu- 
cation which exist to-day independently of the public school 
system or of state control, although many of them are 
recipients of state assistance. 

While the Federal government was planting these schools 
among the freedmen, the people of the middle and New 
England states were sending thousands of dollars into the 
south and sending an army of devoted men and women to 
back up and carry forward the educational work among the 
freed people. In the extent of it, it was and it continues 
to be the most striking example of Christian brotherhood 
and benevolence in the annals of mankind. Through the 
agency of the Federal government and northern philanthropy, 
schools for the freed people were planted everywhere, and 
grew and prospered, and continue to grow and prosper, as 
such schools never have done before. 

Writing on this subject in the Southern workman (Janu- 
ary, 1898), the organ of the Hampton institute, T. Thomas 
Fortune said : 

" It is true that the public and private interest which 
aroused the north especially, to the importance of lifting 
into the glorious sunlight of knowledge the great mass of 
Afro-Americans who had so long stumbled and fallen and 
grovelled in the darkness of ignorance and superstition 
and immorality, with which the institution of slavery was 
compelled to hedge itself about in order to insure existence, 
has no parallel in the history of mankind. We seek in vain 
for philanthropy so instant and generous and continuous, 
and for missionary spirit so noble and capable and self- 
sacrificing, as that which answered the Macedonian cry that 
came out of the log cabins of the south, 

" 'When the war drums throbbed no longer, and the battle flags were furled, 
In the parliament of man, the federation of the world.' " 

" And what a herculean task was theirs ! The New Eng- 
land men and women who went into the waste places of the 
south, following closely upon the heels of the warlike host 
that stacked their arms at Appomattox court house, formed 



917] EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO 25 

an army as heroic as ever went forth under the standard of 
the cross to 'redeem the human mind from error.' No 
wealth could have purchased the service and the sacrifice 
they undertook for God and humanity, and no memorial of 
affection or granite shaft can ever adequately commemorate 
their works. There are some services and sacrifices which it 
is impossible to reward. These evangels went into a hostile 
country, armed with Puritan faith and New England culture, 
and by singleness of purpose and gentleness of character 
disarmed the prejudice of the whites and won the respect 
and confidence of the suspicious blacks, who had been edu- 
cated in the school of slavery to distrust all Greeks, even 
those bearing gifts. But in the progress of time all this 
was changed, and prejudice and suspicion were transformed 
into respect and confidence. 

" What have been the results ? After thirty years of 
effort there are 25,615 Afro-American teachers in the 
schools of the south, where there was hardly one when the 
work began ; some 4,000 men have been prepared, in part or 
in whole, for the work of the Christian ministry, and a com- 
plete revolution has been effected in the mental and moral 
character of Afro-American preachers, a service which no 
one can estimate who is not intimately informed of the tre- 
mendous influence which these preachers exercise every- 
where over the masses of their race ; the professions of law 
and medicine have been so far supplied that one or more 
representatives are to be found in every large community of 
the south, as well as in the north and west, graduates for the 
most part of the schools of the south ; and all over the 
south I have found men engaged in trade occupations whose 
intellects and characters were shaped for the battle of life 
by the New England pioneers who took up the work where 
their soldier brothers laid it down at the close of the war. 
But tjie influence of these teachers upon the character, the 
home life, of the thousands who are neither teaching, preach- 
ing nor engaged in professional or commercial pursuits, but 
are devoted to the making of domestic comfort and happi- 



26 EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO [918 

ness for their husbands and children, in properly training 
the future citizens of the republic, was one of the most 
necessary and far-reaching that was exercised, and the one 
which to-day holds out the promise for the best results in 
the years to come." 

It was these New England men and women who labored 
all over the south from 1865 to 1870 who made possible the 
splendid public school results so eloquently depicted in the 
statistical tables given at the end of this monograph. Their 
labors did not end in the field of primary education in 1870 ; 
they remained at their posts until they had prepared the 
25,000 Negroes necessary to take their places. " When shall 
their glory fade ? " And even unto to-day hundreds of them 
are laboring in some one of the 169 schools of secondary 
and higher education maintained for the freed people. 

VI BEQUESTS FOR SOUTHERN EDUCATION 

In the inauguration and development of the educational 
work in the southern states and the District of Columbia 
there have been other potential agencies than those already 
enumerated. It has been shown that the Federal govern- 
ment, operating through the Freedmen's bureau, of which 
Major-General O. O. Howard was commissioner, between 
1865 and 1870 established 4,239 schools, employing 9,307 
teachers, with an enrollment of 247,333 pupils, at a total 
expense of $1,002,896.07, of which the freedmen themselves 
raised $200,000; that the American missionary association, 
founded in 1846, was among the first agencies to enter the 
southern educational work, as it has since been the most 
active and effective ; and that the southern states, from 
1870, when they assumed control of the common school sys- 
em, to 1896-97, spent in primary education, $514,922,268, of 
which at least $100,000,000 was devoted to the free educa- 
tion of the slaves. These enormous expenditures (see table 
2) were largely supplemented by private benevolence, esti- 
mated at a total of $40,000,000, much of which went into 
primary school buildings and education, the buildings in 



919] EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO 2 J 

most instances having been gradually relinquished to the 
states. 

As the American missionary association was among the 
first to enter the southern school work, it is proper to give 
it a conspicuous place in this monograph. The extent of its 
operations in the southern field can be inferred from the 
fifty-third annual report of the executive committee (Sep- 
tember 30, 1899). From this report it appears that the 
association has in the southern educational work of second- 
ary and higher education 5 chartered institutions, 45 nor- 
mal and graded schools, 26 common schools, being 76 
schools, with 414 instructors and 1 2,428 pupils. The receipts 
for the current work for the year (1898-99) were 
$297,681.98 ; expenditures, $296,810.84. The total receipts 
for all purposes for the year were $370,963.44, of which 
$71,960.50 is credited to income from the Daniel Hand 
fund. The work of this association has been inestimable. 

At the annual meeting of the American missionary asso- 
ciation, at Providence, R. I., October 23-25, 1888, it was 
announced that Mr. Daniel Hand, of Guilford, Connecticut, 
had given the association $1,000,894.25, in trust, to be 
known as the " Daniel Hand educational fund for colored 
people," the income of which shall be used for the purpose 
of educating needy and indigent colored people of African 
descent, residing, or who may hereafter reside, in the recent 
slave states of the United States." In addition to this 
princely gift Mr. Hand provided that his residuary estate, 
amounting to the sum of $500,000, should be devoted to 
the same purpose, to be disbursed through the association. 
Mr. Hand made his wealth in the south, where he settled in 
Augusta, Ga., in 1818, and he, therefore, had an intimate 
knowledge of the educational needs of the emancipated peo- 
ple. He was a man of devout nature. 

But the fund which had the most influence upon the devel- 
opment of the primary and secondary education of the south- 
ern states was that of $2,000,000 established by George 
Peabody, of Danvers, Mass. (the first gift of $1,000,000 



2S EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO \_9 2 ° 

being made February 7, 1867, the second $1,000,000 being 
added July 1, 1869). In addition, $1,100,000 in bonds, 
indorsed by Mississippi, and $384,000 Florida bonds were 
given to the trustees appointed to administer the trust, but 
these bonds were ultimately repudiated by Mississippi and 
Florida, although both of them were beneficiaries of the 
trust, — Mississippi by $86,878 and Florida by $67,375, from 
1868 to 1897. The general purposes of the trust, as Mr. 
Peabody stated it, in his letter to the sixteen trustees desig- 
nated by him, were that " the income thereof should be 
applied in your discretion for the promotion and encourage- 
ment of intellectual, moral or industrial education of the 
young of the more destitute portions of the southern and 
southwestern states of our union ; my purpose being that 
the benefits intended shall be distributed among the entire 
population, without other distinction than their needs and 
the opportunities of usefulness to them." 

Mr. Peabody laid the foundation of his immense fortune 
in Georgetown, D. C, and Baltimore, from 181 2 to 1837. 
In the latter year he permanently settled in London, Eng- 
land, and began business there, where his benefactions 
equalled those he made in the United States, of which 
the trust fund for educational purposes was the most consid- 
erable, but by no means the only one. Mr. Peabody started 
life as a poor boy, but he had a natural genius for making 
money, and, what is far rarer, as the poor of London and our 
southern states can testify, a natural genius for so devoting 
his wealth to public uses as to accomplish the most good. 

The trustees of the Peabody fund, of which the Hon. 
Robert C. Winthrop was chairman, were particularly for- 
tunate in securing as the first general agent Dr. B. Sears, 
then president of Brown university. In 1848 Dr. Sears had 
succeeded Horace Mann as secretary of the Massachusetts 
board of education and as its executive agent, and served in 
that capacity until 1855, when he was called to the presi- 
dency of his alma mater. He was still president of Brown 
university when called to the work of the Peabody fund, 



92 i] EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO 29 

April 9, 1867. He had been grounded in the common 
school theories of Horace Mann and Henry Barnard and in 
the work of higher education as president of a great uni- 
versity. He was eminently fitted, therefore, to do much 
towards shaping the public school system of the southern 
states. 

Dr. J. L. M. Curry, the present able general agent of the 
fund, says of Dr. Sears (who died July 6, 1880), in his " His- 
tory of the Peabody fund" (page 67) : 

" The highest commendation of his work is to be found 
in the persuasive, potential influence he exerted in behalf 
of popular education. School superintendents bore their 
strong and cheerful testimony to his rare insight into the 
educational needs of the south, and to his influence in stim- 
ulating to proper and wise action." 

Dr. Curry succeeded Dr. Sears February 2, 1881, and 
with the exception of three years, when he was minister 
plenipotentiary and envoy extraordinary to Spain, he has 
been the working force in shaping the policy of the fund to 
the present time. Dr. Curry, — himself a southern man, — 
learned, eloquent, an indefatigable worker, and passionately 
devoted to the highest educational ideas and to the cause of 
southern education, as the representative of the Peabody 
fund and the Slater fund, has done equally as much as Dr. 
Ruffner and Dr. Sears in shaping the southern educational 
movement. In speaking of the general effects of the fund, 
Dr. Curry says (History of the Peabody education fund, 

"'The fund has been a most potent agency in creating and 
preserving a bond of peace and unity and fraternity between 
the north and the south. It instituted an era of good feel- 
ing ; for the gift, as Mr. Winthrop said, ' was the earliest 
manifestation of a spirit of reconciliation toward those from 
whom we had been so unhappily alienated and against whom 
we of the north had been so recently arrayed in arms.' No 
instrumentality has been so effective in the south in promot- 
ing concord, in restoring fellowship, in cultivating a broad 



30 EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO [922 

and generous patriotism, and apart from its direct connec- 
tion with schools, it has been an unspeakable blessing in 
cementing the bonds of a lately dissevered union." 

From 1868 to 1897 the income of the fund amounted to 
$2,478,527.13, of which $248,562.25 was expended in main- 
taining the Normal college for whites at Nashville, Tenn., 
and $398,690.88 for scholarships at the same college. The 
remainder was expended in rendering aid to the needy 
public schools of the south and in stimulating normal and 
industrial education for both races. 

March 4, 1882, Mr. John Fox Slater, of Norwich, Conn., 
created a trust fund of $1,000,000, stating that the "gen- 
eral object which I desire to have exclusively pursued is the 
uplifting of the lately emancipated population of the southern 
states and their posterity by conferring on them the bless- 
ings of Christian education." He declared in the same rela- 
tion : " The disabilities formerly suffered by these people 
and their singular patience and fidelity in the great crisis of 
the nation, establish a just claim on the sympathy and good 
will of humane and patriotic men. I cannot but feel the 
compassion that is due in view of their prevailing ignorance 
which exists by no fault of theirs." 

" But it is not only for their own sakes," Mr. Slater said 
further, " but also for the safety of our common country, in 
which they have been invested with equal political rights, 
and I am desirous to aid in providing them with the means 
of such education as shall tend to make them good men and 
good citizens — education in which the instruction of the 
mind in the common branches of secular learning shall be 
associated with training in just notions of duty toward God 
and man in the light of the Holy Scriptures." 

The fund is administered by a trustee board, and like the 
Peabody fund, composed of some of the most distinguished 
citizens of the republic. The Slater fund is used almost 
exclusively at the present time in promoting industrial edu- 
cation at a number of the largest institutions for colored 
people. 



923] EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO 3 I 

These princely donations by three private citizens, aggre- 
gating a fund of $4,000,000, have been supplemented by 
millions of dollars more from private citizens which have 
gone to the building up of the educational waste places of 
the south, to which all of the great church denominations 
have contributed, and still contribute, more or less as organ- 
ized bodies. As the outgrowth of all the benefactions and 
effort since 1865 there are now, according to Dr. Mayo, 169 
schools of secondary and higher education in the southern 
states maintained for the Negro people. They are fed con- 
stantly by the common schools, and all the agencies work- 
ing together are fast reducing the ignorance bequeathed as 
a terrible legacy by the slave system to the southern states. 
We shall search history in vain for a parallel to the munifi- 
cence, the Christian charity and the personal sacrifice which 
the people of the great republic have contributed since 1865 
to the education of the lately enslaved people of the Negro 
race. 

VII PRESENT EDUCATIONAL STATUS 

It was natural and to have been expected, after the New 
England men and women who had graduated out of the 
white heat of the high educational enthusiasm created by 
Horace Mann, Henry Barnard, Dr. Sears, and others, from 
1830 to i860, had laid the foundation of the primary edu- 
cation among the emancipated people of the southern states, 
that they would then turn their attention to the secondary 
and higher education of the same people. That is what 
they did. As fast as they prepared young men and women 
to take their places as school teachers (and at the present 
time there are more than 25,000 such teaching in the public 
schools of the south), these New England men and women 
retired from the field as public school teachers. The)' were 
actuated almost wholly by Christian missionary spirit. They 
heard the loud " Macedonian cry " and responded to it with 
a devotion and self-sacrifice which will always remain one 
of the most luminous and striking pages in missionary 
effort. 



32 EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO [924 

But there was another and a splendid work for them to 
do in laying the foundation of the secondary and higher 
education as the necessary supplement of the primary 
educational work. At the present time there are 169 such 
schools in the sixteen southern states and the District of 
Columbia. Some of them are magnificent seats of learning ; 
such, for example, as Howard university, at Washington ; 
Atlanta university, at Atlanta ; Fisk university, at Nash- 
ville ; Wiley university, at Marshall, Texas, and the like, so 
that the southern state which has no such school of higher 
learning is poor indeed. And these schools were founded, 
for the most part, and are maintained in the main by north- 
ern philanthropy — a philanthropy of which George Pea- 
body, John F. Slater and Daniel Hand are the most striking 
examples. The money value and the income of these 
schools is set forth in table 8 of the appendix ; while the 
character, teachers and students are set forth in tables 3 to 7 
inclusive. The fact that the income of these 169 schools in 
1896-97 was $1,045,278, that $540,097 of it was derived 
from unclassified sources, that the several states and munic- 
ipalties contributed $271,839, and that the students paid in 
tuition fees $141,262, shows that all the best forces of the 
republic — the state, the Christian philanthropist and the 
grateful beneficiary — are all working harmoniously together 
to prepare the children of the former slaves for the proper 
and high duties of citizenship. The public school system, — 
with 1,460,084 pupils enrolled of Negroes, in 1896-97, as 
against an enrollment of only 571,506 in 1876-77, — is a fix- 
ture and serves as a constant feeder of the 169 schools of 
higher learning. Thus the whole system, it will be seen, of 
primary, secondary and higher education, is in harmonious 
relationship and must grow stronger and stronger every 
year. 

It should not be overlooked, however, that besides the 
splendid advantages offered the Negroes by these 169 schools 
of higher learning, all of the colleges and universities of the 
northern and western states are accessible to Negro students 



925] EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO 33 

who prefer them, color distinctions not being recognized or 
tolerated in the management of these schools. The white 
colleges and universities of the southern states, like the 
public school system, are conducted rigidly upon lines of 
race separation. 

It was a natural development of the educational effort in 
the southern states that when the schools of secondary and 
higher education had become fixed facts that a desire should 
have grown up for other institutions whose principal object 
should be the industrial education of such of the Negroes 
as desire that sort of education. Of late years industrial 
schools have sprung up all over the southern states, and 
they are growing constantly in favor with the masses, 
because of their economic condition and the growing 
demand for skilled workmen in all avenues of industry. 
In the early days of the educational work of the southern 
states little stress was laid upon the industrial training of 
the people. Mental and moral and religious training was 
considered the all-important thing. Perhaps it was, — to a 
people who had dwelt in mental, moral and religious dark- 
ness from 1620 to 1865. They needed the great light of 
mental, moral and religious truths as a firm and sure foun- 
dation upon which was to be built a structure of technical 
education, out of which should naturally grow the industrial 
and commercial rehabilitation of the people, without which 
there can be no character, no strength, no prosperity in an 
individual or a race. This principle was recognized by the 
30 members of the Society of Friends, who established the 
Institute for colored youth at Philadelphia, in 1837, to which 
reference has already been made. 

The good Friends were very much in advance of their 
time, and a great many good people of both races have not 
caught up with their idea as yet. However,there has been a 
very great and satisfactory awakening all over the republic 
during the past decade, among all races of the population, 
as to the vital importance of technical education. The fact 
that 13,581 Negro students were receiving industrial training 



34 EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO [926 

in schools of the south, in 1896-97 (see table 7), speaks vol- 
umes, as compared to the 2,108 who were receiving collegiate 
education (see table 3), and the 2,410 who were receiving 
classical instruction (see table 4), and the 1,311 who were 
taking the professional course (see table 6) in the same 
year ; making a total of 5,829 taking the higher education, 
or 7,752 fewer than were taking the industrial course. 
Indeed, the growth of the industrial theory of education 
among Negroes in the past decade has not only been 
phenomenal but it is by all odds the most encouraging fact 
in a situation not without its discouraging features. 

It is a rare compliment to one of the wisest and best of 
the New England men who engaged in the southern educa- 
tional work that his theory of industrial training has taken 
such a firm root in a rich soil. This good and wise man 
was General Samuel Chapman Armstrong. While other 
men and women were devoting themselves to the necessary 
work of founding schools of secondary and higher educa- 
tion for the freed people, General Armstrong, in 1868, busied 
himself in founding and developing the Hampton normal 
and agricultural institute at Hampton, Va., which, says the 
historian of the work, "beginning in 1868 with two teachers 
and 15 students in the old barracks left by the civil war, the 
Hampton school has grown, until at the beginning of the 
present year (1899) there were on the grounds 1,000 stu- 
dents. Of these 135 are Indians, representing ten states 
and territories. Of the 80 officers, teachers and assistants, 
about one-half are in the industrial departments. Instead 
of the old barracks there are now fifty-five buildings." 

The Hampton normal and agricultural institute is with- 
out doubt at the present time the center of all that is best, 
wisest and most permanent in the educational development 
of the black man in the south. It is by far the largest and 
most important seat of learning in the country for the 
development of the Negro. It has a large property now 
valued at over half a million of dollars, and has in constant 
operation all the industries by which the colored people find 



927] EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO 35 

it necessary to make a living. Under the wise supervision 
of Dr. H. B. Frissell, the successor of General Armstrong, 
this institution is constantly growing, broadening and deep- 
ening its influence among the people. The work of the 
Hampton institute has not only resulted in turning the atten- 
tion of the Negro population to the importance of industrial 
education, but has had a marked influence in shaping the 
education of the white south in the same direction. 

It was the constant aim of General Armstrong to educate 
the head, the heart and the hand of the student, to make 
strong school teachers and skilled mechanics and agricul- 
turalists, and his aims have been amply justified by results. 
General Armstrong was born of missionary parents in 
Hawaii. He was educated in this country. He was a 
soldier in the war for the preservation of the union and com- 
manded a regiment of black soldiers. His was a pious and 
lovable nature which delighted to do the Master's work by 
reaching out the hand of assistance to the lowest and most 
needy of the Master's children. 

Out of the Hampton institute has grown the Tuskegee 
normal and industrial institute, located at Tuskegee, Ala., 
in the black belt of the south. The Tuskegee institute has 
grown from a log cabin to an institution possessing 42 build- 
ings with 2,300 acres of land, 88 instructors and about a 
thousand students. It gives instruction in about twenty-six 
different industries, in addition to giving training in aca- 
demic and religious branches. A large number of graduates 
of Tuskegee are turned out every year and are at work in 
various portions of the south as teachers in class rooms, 
instructors in agricultural, mechanical and domestic pursuits. 
Quite a number of these graduates and students cultivate 
their own farms or man their own industrial establishments. 
The property owned by the Tuskegee normal and industrial 
institute is valued at $300,000, and the buildings have been 
very largely built by the labor of the students themseh 
One rather unique feature of the Tuskegee normal and 
industrial institute is that the institution is wholly officered 



36 EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO [928 

by members of the Negro race. Aside from Hampton, Tus- 
kegee is one of the largest and most important centers of 
education in the south, especially in the direction of indus- 
trial development. 

The work of the Hampton institute and Tuskegee is not 
only proving itself valuable in showing the rank and file of 
the colored people how to lift themselves up, but it is equally 
important in winning the friendship and co-operation of the 
southern white people. The influence of the young men 
and women turned out from these two institutions, as well as 
from other institutions, is gradually softening the prejudice 
against the education of the Negro, and in many striking 
instances bringing about the active co-operation and help 
of the southern white man in the direction of elevating the 
Negro. 

There have been many other schools than the Tuskegee 
institute founded on the Hampton idea, and the number is 
increasing every year. Nearly all the southern states are 
now maintaining industrial schools not only for the blacks 
but for the whites as well, for the education that is good 
and necessary for the black is equally so for the white boy. 

From the facts and conclusions set forth, hastily withal, 
in this monograph it will readily be seen that from the edu- 
cational point of view the Negro race has, since 1865, taken 
full advantage of its splendid opportunities, and that the 
present affords splendid promise that the future, which so 
many dread, will, in the providence of God, take care of 
itself. 



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TABLE 2 — Sixteen former slave states and the District of 

Columbia 



1870-71 
1871-72 

1872-73 

1873-74 

1874-75 

1875-76 

1876-77 

1877-78 

187s 79 

1879-80 

1880-81 

1881-82 

1882-83 

1S83-84 

1884-85 

1885-86 

1886-87 

18S7-83 

1888-89, 

1889-90 

1890-91 , 

1891-92 , 

18Q2-93 , 

1893-94 

1894-95 

1895-06 , 

1896-97 , 



YEAR 



COMMON SCHOOL ENROLLMENT 



Total, 



White 



1 827 139 

2 034 946 
2 OI3 684 
2 215 674 
2 234 877 
2 249 263 
2 370 IIO 
2 546 448 
2 676 9II 

2 773 145 

2 975 773 

3 no 606 
3 197 830 
3 402 420 
3 570 624 
3 607 549 
3 697 899 
3 835 593 
3 845 414 
3 861 300 

3 937 99 2 



Colored 



Expenditures 
(both races) 



571,506 

675 I50 

685 942 

784 709 

802 374 

802 982 

817 240 

I 002 313 

I 030 463 

I 048 659 

I Il8 556 

I I40 405 

I 213 O92 

I 296 959 

I 329 549 

1 354 316 

1 367 515 

1 424 995 

1 441 282 

1 429 713 

1 460 084 



$10 385 464 
n 623 238 
n 176 048 

11 823 775 
13 021 514 

12 033 865 
n 231 073 
12 093 091 
12 174 141 

12 678 685 

13 656 814 

15 241 740 

16 363 471 

17 884 558 

19 253 874 

20 208 113 

20 821 969 

21 810 158 

23 171 878 

24 880 107 

26 690 310 

27 691 488 

28 535 738 

29 223 546 

29 372 990 

30 729 819 

31 144 801 



$514 922 268 



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.2 •- 

'So 1 



'So 



^. <u 






